French Revolution & Nationalism in Europe
- Frédéric Sorrieu (1848)
- A French artist who prepared a series of four prints visualising a world made up of democratic and social republics.
- His first print showed people of different nations marching, with the Statue of Liberty leading them, holding the torch of freedom and the Charter of Rights.
- Nations carried their national flags (e.g., the tricolour for France, black-red-gold for Germany).
- Ideas of the French Revolution
- Concepts like La Patrie (the fatherland) and Le Citoyen (the citizen) were introduced.
- The French tricolour became a symbol of unity and liberty.
- Internal custom duties were abolished, weights and measures were standardized, and a uniform system of laws was introduced.
- France declared it was the mission of the French nation to liberate the people of Europe from despotism.
- Jacobins and Revolutionary Clubs
- Clubs like the Jacobin Club spread revolutionary ideas to other countries.
- Students, middle-class professionals, and exiles carried the message of freedom and equality abroad.
- Impact on Other Regions
- Belgium, Switzerland, Italy (Lombardy, Venetia), and Germany saw uprisings inspired by French ideals.
- Nationalist movements spread, demanding liberty, equality, and nation-states.
- Napoleon (1799 onwards)
- Rose to power after the Revolution.
- Positive role: Introduced reforms like the Napoleonic Code (1804) → abolished feudal privileges, promoted equality before law, and secured property rights.
- Negative role: His conquests led to wars, censorship, and exploitation, so many began to see him as a foreign oppressor rather than a liberator.
Making of Nationalism in Europe – Important Points
1. The Aristocracy and the New Middle Class
- Aristocracy: Dominant social group in Europe in the 18th–19th century, owning land, enjoying privileges, and speaking French (common across aristocrats).
- New Middle Class: Emerged from industrialisation and trade (industrialists, businessmen, professionals).
- Demanded national unity, liberal rights, equality before law, and end of aristocratic privileges.
- They were the carriers of nationalism → spread new ideas of freedom and representative government.
2. What did Liberal Nationalism stand for?
- Liberalism = freedom + equality (political and economic).
- Political: Representative government, Constitution, end of autocracy, equality before law, religious tolerance.
- Economic: Free market, abolition of internal custom duties, standardized weights and measures, uniform currency.
- Example: Middle-class people demanded free movement of goods, services, and capital.
- They stood against aristocracy and autocracy → wanted a nation state (based on people, not dynasty).
3. A New Conservatism after 1815
- After defeat of Napoleon (1815) → Congress of Vienna met (led by Austrian Chancellor Metternich).
- Goals:
- Restore monarchies (Bourbons in France).
- Establish conservative order in Europe.
- Balance of power between states.
- Conservatism = preserve monarchy, church, aristocracy.
- BUT → suppressed liberal and nationalist aspirations → led to revolutions later (1830, 1848).
4. The Revolutionaries
- Revolutionaries = nationalists + liberals working secretly against monarchies.
- Used underground societies, press, and writings to spread nationalism.
- Example: Giuseppe Mazzini (Italy) formed Young Italy (1831) and Young Europe (1834).
- Believed in unified, democratic republics.
- Revolutionaries = inspired peasant/worker movements + revolutions across Europe (France, Italy, Germany, etc.).
1. The Age of Revolutions (1830–1848)
- The years 1830 and 1848 were marked by revolutions across Europe against monarchy and conservative order.
- France, Belgium, Poland, Italy, and Germany witnessed uprisings.
- 1830: Greek War of Independence succeeded; Greece was recognized as an independent nation.
- 1848: Liberal revolutionaries demanded constitutional governments, freedom of press, abolition of feudal privileges, and national unification.
- These movements were often led by the educated middle class, students, and professionals.
2. The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling
- Romanticism = a cultural movement that developed in Europe in the late 18th & early 19th centuries.
- Romantic artists (poets, painters, musicians) emphasized emotions, folk culture, traditions, and shared past.
- Examples:
- Johann Gottfried Herder (Germany) → promoted idea of Volksgeist (spirit of the people) through folk songs & dances.
- Collecting folk tales (e.g., Brothers Grimm) created a sense of national identity.
- Romanticism thus became a tool to revive national pride and encourage nationalism.
3. Hunger, Hardship and Popular Revolt (1830s–1840s)
- Europe faced severe economic crises during this period.
- 1830s–1840s:
- Widespread unemployment due to population growth.
- Food shortages & famine → especially the 1845 Potato Famine in Ireland.
- Rise in food prices → affected workers & peasants badly.
- Social tensions led to riots, protests, and revolts in towns and countryside.
- This unrest merged with the demands of liberal-nationalists for political reforms.
4. 1848: The Revolution of the Liberals
- Known as the “Springtime of Nations” or Revolutions of 1848.
- In France (1848): Louis Philippe was overthrown, and a Republic was proclaimed.
- Liberals (middle-class professionals, students, workers) demanded:
- Universal suffrage (voting rights) (though often limited to men).
- Freedom of press and association.
- Constitutional and parliamentary government.
- In German states: Frankfurt Parliament (1848) met in St. Paul’s Church to draft a constitution for a united Germany under a constitutional monarchy.
- However, most 1848 revolutions failed due to lack of unity among revolutionaries and suppression by conservative forces.
The Making of Germany and Italy
Germany – Can the Army be the Architect of a Nation?
- Before 1848: Germany was a patchwork of 39 states (under the German Confederation).
- In 1848, liberals tried to unite Germany under the Frankfurt Parliament → failed.
- Prussia (largest German state) took leadership in unification.
- Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor, used the army, bureaucracy, and diplomacy (“blood and iron policy”) to achieve unification.
- Wars with Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France (1870–71) unified Germany under Prussian leadership.
- In 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed at Versailles, with Kaiser William I as Emperor.
- CBSE focus: Role of Bismarck & Prussian army → army as the “architect of German unification.”
Italy Unified
- Italy was divided into many states; Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel II led unification.
- Cavour (Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont) used diplomacy, modernisation, and alliances.
- Giuseppe Mazzini: “Young Italy” movement, revolutionary ideas (failed earlier, but inspired later).
- Giuseppe Garibaldi: Red Shirts fought for unification in Southern Italy, handed over Naples & Sicily to Victor Emmanuel II.
- 1861: Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of a unified Italy.
- 1870: Rome was added → complete unification.
- CBSE focus: Compare diplomacy (Cavour) vs armed struggle (Garibaldi).
The Strange Case of Britain
- Unlike Germany/Italy, Britain’s unification was gradual, not sudden.
- Earlier, Britain was inhabited by English, Scots, Welsh, and Irish.
- Power shifted from monarchy → Parliament (after Glorious Revolution, 1688).
- 1707 Act of Union: England + Scotland → United Kingdom of Great Britain.
- Ireland forcibly incorporated later; Catholics suppressed, Protestant English dominated.
- “British nation” identity created through symbols, flag (Union Jack), national anthem, English language, and expansion of Parliament’s power.
- CBSE focus: Britain → unification through Parliament & domination, not revolution.
🖼️ Visualising the Nation
- Nationalism often represented through female allegories.
- France: “Marianne” (red cap, tricolour, cockade, liberty torch).
- Germany: “Germania” (crown of oak leaves, sword, breastplate, black-red-gold flag).
- Artists like Frederic Sorrieu (1848) drew visions of nations marching together → utopian world of democracy and fraternity.
- CBSE focus: Importance of symbols/allegories in uniting people.
🌍 Nationalism and Imperialism
- By late 19th century, nationalism took an aggressive, expansionist form.
- Balkan region (Southeast Europe): Highly volatile, many ethnic groups → Serbs, Croats, Bulgarians, Greeks, Albanians, etc.
- Each wanted independence from Ottoman Empire → Balkan nationalism clashed with big powers (Russia, Austria, Germany).
- This rivalry over Balkans led to tension → First World War (1914).
- CBSE focus: Nationalism shifted from liberal unification (1815–1871) → imperial rivalry & war (after 1871).